Imagining
Other
Political
Philosophy Part 2:
– political ideas since the French Revolution.
Links: Imagining Other Index Page Introduction to Part 2
Summary guide to the ‘isms and
ideologies to be covered (numbers indicate weeks):
2. Liberalism. Key
thinkers: Adam Smith (1723 – 1790), John Rawls (1921 – 2002).
Liberalism - Adam Smith, Liberalism - John Rawls.
Classical liberalism stresses
the importance of freedom for the
individual, and consequently the need for the state to have only limited powers – mainly to ensure the
freedom (and rights – especially property rights) of the individual citizen. It
is based on the ideas of John Locke, 1632 – 1704, whom we dealt with in Part 1.
3. Utilitarianism. Key thinkers: Jeremy
Bentham (1748 – 1832), JS Mill (1806 – 1873). Utilitarianism
This is based on the idea
that (i) the only thing about human behaviour that we can be sure of is that each of us seeks happiness (ii) we
therefore always want to know, and we can
measure, how useful anything is to us in terms of the amount of happiness
it will bring– this is its utility
(iii) if government is based on policies that bring the greatest happiness to the maximum number of people, only then will government
be satisfactory.
4. Socialism before/besides Marx. Key thinkers: Robert
Owen (1771 – 1858), William Morris (1834 – 1896) a Marxist, but who added to
Marx’s ideas. Socialism.
Socialism stresses the equality of all, and the dignity of labour. Some socialists
believe in the importance of state control of the economy – others
(‘libertarian socialists’) argue that workers can organise society without
being ‘managed’ by the government. British socialism often has an ethical and
an aesthetic dimension to it that is missing in Marxism.
5. Marxism and communism. Key thinkers: Karl
Marx (1818 – 1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895). Eduard Bernstein (1850 –
1932), and Tony Crosland (1918 – 1977) (social democrats). Antonio
Gramsci (1891 – 1937) Italian Marxist. Marx
(part 1)
Marx believed that the
present economic system – capitalism
– was based on contradictions and
subject to constant class conflict.
It would eventually, as a result of these contradictions and the class conflict
they entail, collapse in a revolutionary
upheaval, and be replaced by a ‘communist’
system. In communism, classes are
abolished, and the state (an
instrument of class rule in capitalism) would
‘wither away’. Some of the socialists who followed after Marx modified his
ideas somewhat - or, in their own terms, brought his ideas up to date. In
particular, in the 19th century, it seemed increasingly unlikely
that the working class would bring about a revolution, so social democrats advocated a peaceful transition to socialism.
Others tried to retain and develop Marxist ideas. Socialism
since Marx
6. Anarchism. Key
thinker: Kropotkin (1842 – 1921).
Anarchism
Anarchism advocates the
complete abolition of the state. Most anarchists have links with
socialism, communism or syndicalism – some are individualist. Most are
non-violent, believing that human nature is essentially good and we can
therefore lead satisfactory social lives without the state and its coercive
institutions.
7. Conservatism. Key thinkers: Edmund Burke (1729 – 1797) we dealt with in Part 1, Hegel
(1770 – 1831) for his nationalism, and Michael Oakeshott 1901 - 1990), a recent
conservative intellectual. Robert Nozick (1938 – 2002) a key figure for
the new right. Conservatism (part 1)
Simply put, conservatism is
based on a belief in the importance of tradition,
which is seen as natural and safe
because based on experience. Radical,
revolutionary ideas are seen as dangerous, and society needs to progress slowly and naturally, and not
be forced into new patterns. Often, conservatism went hand in hand with
nationalism. Recently, conservatism has (in opposition to ‘socialism’) stressed
its liberal roots and we now have ‘neo-liberals’ and ‘neo-conservatives’ and
the ‘new right’.
8. Existentialism; and Feminism. Key thinkers: Jean-Paul
Sartre (1905 – 1980) Existentialism
and Simone de Beauvoir (1908 – 1986) an existentialist feminist. Simone de Beauvoir
Largely in reaction against
the influence of religion in philosophy, and as an attempt to bring philosophy
into contact with real life (‘existence’, ‘being’), existentialism also took on board - but challenged - the
ideas of Freud about the sub-conscious, and in doing so posed fundamental
questions about human nature and human
freedom.
Reacting against the lack of
freedom women had, and their exclusion from politics and power in society,
feminist thinkers also realised how women had been excluded from philosophical thinking (see also postmodernism, week
10). Simone de Beauvoir was one of the first modern feminists, and she used
existentialist ideas to try to explain the continued subordination of women.
Since then, feminism has profoundly influenced modern philosophy. There are
several different strands of feminist thought (liberal, socialist, radical,
etc). Feminism
9. Environmentalism. Key thinkers: Arne
Naess 1912 – 2009,
An awareness of the damaging
impact humans are having on the natural environment has led to some thinkers
developing a philosophy that takes into account our place in the natural world. Environmentalism is a social
movement, and it is not possible to identify a single philosopher (or
philosophy!) behind it, nevertheless ideas such as ‘deep ecology’ (Arne Naess) and ‘social
ecology’ (Murray Bookchin) are attempts to combine an understanding of the
natural environment with an understanding of human life.
10. Postmodernism. Key thinkers: Jean-Francois
Lyotard (1924 - 1998), Jacques Derrida (1930 - 2004) Postmodernism
Postmodernism represents a
radical questioning of the role of philosophy especially in relation to modern
politics. Postmodernism suggests that all ‘modern’ philosophies (which were
thought up by representatives of the ‘modern’ – i.e. colonial – nations) were
built on the viewpoint of the group that
exercised political power in the ‘modern’ world (western nations, men, the
white races…). Philosophy therefore is said to represent how these people see the world, not how the world is. The ‘modern’
outlook therefore needs to be superseded, by (i) identifying the hidden
assumptions in modern thought which exclude the views of the non-powerful, and by
(ii) exploring ways of understanding the world through the eyes of the
non-powerful (inhabitants of the less-developed world, women, those with
non-traditional sexuality etc). [This is in my own words...]
Some postmodernism seems to even
question the view that there is such a thing as objective truth (since the
concept of ‘objectivity’ has been used by the powerful to exclude others’ views).